Ancient Arabian Mythology and Outside Influence

My version

Most people have likely experienced a time in their life where they were singing, reciting rhymes with a friend or telling stories to each other and found that they had a disagreement about the exact words or telling of the song, rhyme, or story. For my husband and me, our argument was always over the “Woodchuck” tongue twister. He swore his version was correct and I swore mine was. These variations arise due to the oral nature of these songs, rhymes, and stories that are passed to us in our childhood. Often times these variations occur regionally and/or culturally. Mythology follows this same pattern. It is therefore important when researching the origins of myths to understand the people of the lands where the myths arise. 

Although there is a vast collection of information available about the advent of Islam and the beliefs of Muslims throughout the Middle East and across the world, information about what the people of Arabia believed before the coming of Islam is scant. Most of the information available about the mythology of the area pertains to Ancient Sumeria, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Canaan, and Egypt. In order to better understand the beliefs of the Pre-Islamic Arabs, it is necessary to identify who the ancient Arabs were and the regions in Arabia in which they lived. 

Ancient Arabia is demarked as the Arabian Peninsula and includes the land stretching northward through the Syrian Desert (Hoyland, 5).  In comparison to the continental US, this area is approximately equivalent to one-quarter the size – a vast piece of land. Thousands of years ago, many diverse people occupied this large piece of land. Much of the land contains vast deserts and because of this, these ancient Arab people were isolated from each other. Their distance and isolation from each other combined with their closeness to other different nations and cultures near each corner of Arabia (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran, etc.) caused them to develop distinctive histories and traditions (Hoyland 5).  Many Arab tribes were nomadic in nature because of the lands’ great deserts and lack of resources, such as the bare necessities: food and water.  The term “Arab” is used in biblical texts to describe these nomadic people, and was likely used by these nomads themselves as a way to describe their identity, separating them from the “others”. Those that were sedentary generally existed in East and South Arabia near the boundaries to other nations or along habitable shorelines, where they had access to the resources needed to live.  

Although there were some differences between settled and nomadic Arabs, they still had fairly similar beliefs and practices. Their beliefs were pagan in nature, having many gods and goddesses that they believed in. Often cities or villages had patron deities and the settlers were the children of the patron deity. They had rituals and sacrifices that were made to their gods. They believed in omens and magic. They were idolaters. Even the nomadic Arabs would either carry stones with them or find stones hey believed in evil spirits, jinn or ginnaye, and ghouls. They believed in amulets for protection and magical medicines, like drinking a potion of your loved one’s ashes mixed with water to cure grief (Hoyland, 151). A particular belief that is widespread is that of the curse of the evil eye and it was this that they were often wearing amulets or had incantations to protect themselves with (Hoyland, 152). These ancient Arabs also believed in divination and would read signs in nature to make choices about the way to proceed. Especially important was the behavior of birds. Although most of these and other beliefs were widespread, they also had regional differences that may have arisen from their proximity to and interactions with other nations. 

Ancient Arabia is divided up into three main regions in Robert Hoyland’s Arabia and the Arabs: East, South, and North / Central (See Figure 1). North / Central Arabia also encompass what some might refer to as Western Arabia. I will attempt to show what influences existed that the people of each portion of Arabia would have most likely encountered and provide a list of examples of some of the beliefs in these regions. 

East Arabia

Hoyland describes Ancient East Arabia as being made up of Southern Mesopotamia, Dilmun, and Magan (current day Southern Iraq, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and Oman). Major influences to the Eastern Arab population were from trade routes passing from northern Mesopotamia through to the Gulf and proximity to and trade with Elam in southwest Iran, and Meluha (Hoyland, 13). Throughout the ages, Influences grew as trade grew, bringing in contact with people (and sometimes rule) from Egypt, Assyria, Anatolia, Persia (specifically, Iran, in the middle of the first century AD), Greece, Macedonia, Parthia, and Rome (Hoyland 14-30). 

Mythological influences on the East Arabia Arabs thus would have ranged, over time, from that of ancient Sumerian traditions from Mesopotamia, Zoroastrianism from Persia, Hindu influences through Elam, to the pantheon of Greek and Roman gods and goddesses. Table 1 shows some examples of these influencing beliefs would have been common in East Arabia (Littleton, Spence, Telesco).

South Arabia

Southern Arabia was made up of what is now Yemen. Major influences to the Southern Arab population were from interactions and trade with Egypt and Ethiopia other areas of Arabia (Howland 40-41).  Like with Eastern Arabia, influences grew as trade grew, also bringing in contact with people (and sometimes rule) from India, Parthia, and Rome (Hoyland). 

The mythological influences that would have had an effect on the Arabs of Southern Arabia would have been much the same as that of Eastern Arabia, with a lesser influence from Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Babylon. As mentioned previously, Southern Arabs would have come into contact with Egyptians and Ethiopians, mostly due to their proximity to these other nations.  Because of this, Southern Arabia would have some additional mythological influences not listed in Table 1. See Table 2 for these additional beliefs that may have influenced Southern Arabs. 

North and Central Arabia

North and Central Arabia differ from the other regions because they consist mostly of arid land that lacks an abundance of the resources to be able to sustain settlement easily, especially in ancient times. Because of the difficulty of settling, the people who lived in these regions were nomadic, often referred to as Bedouins. It is the Arab Bedouins of North and Central Arabia that show up in Israelite and Assyrian writings such as the Judeo-Christian Bible. The Bedouin Arabs were pastoralists and traders that came into contact with the same outsiders as the other regions over time (Howland).

Mythologically speaking, Bedouins, as well as having their own particular beliefs, would have been influenced by all of the same outside nations as already mentioned. A difference from the other regions would be that they would have likely had more contact with Egyptian beliefs and especially Judaism and Christianity as those faiths grew.  

When communities have a lot of contact with people who have other traditions and other beliefs than their own, it is impossible for the new beliefs, stories, and traditions that they are exposed to not have some staying power. Often, especially in the case of military conquest and rule of a new entity, new religions are adopted along with new stories and traditions. Sometimes these stories are entirely new, but most often there is a mixing of the myths and traditions, producing something that appeases both parties, just as Rome assimilated the pagans by turning their winter solstice festival into a Christian holiday, Christmas. Thus, everything from Zoroastrianism to Christianity was introduced to the Arabs of Arabia.

Even before there were outside influences, the Arab population had a pantheon of Gods. Most villages had their own patron deity, of which the people of the village were called the children that patron god. Hoyland mentions an old Arab proverb which says, “’When you enter a village, swear by its god’” (Hoyland, 139-140). Often times, however, the communities still held a god or goddess that was the leader of all the other gods. 

Tables and Figures

Figure 1 Map of Ancient East, South, and North/Central Arabia (Hoyland)

  

Table 1 Examples of mythological influences on Eastern Arabia (Hall, Littleon, Spence, and Telesco)

	Sumerian / Mesopotamian / Babylonian / Assyrian	Persian	Indic from Elam	Greek / Roman
General	·      Clay figure amulets ·      The worship of a Sun god and the bull ·      The sacred cow with the life giving milk ·      Astrology ·      Metal amulets ·      Stone amulets ·      Crystal / gemstone amulets ·      Sacred dance ·      Trial by water ·      Knot charms / curative knots ·      Lucky / unlucky days ·      Lucky / unlucky numbers ·      Ritual sex ·      Curative drum beats ·      Incense for purification ·      Polytheism ·      Idolatry ·      Belief in an underworld ·      Humankind created from clay ·      Flood myth ·      Giants ·      Judaism ·      Christianity	·      Shell amulets to avert the evil eye ·      Magic ·      Monotheism ·      Zoroastrianism ·      Astrology ·      The Zodiac ·      Concept of good vs. evil ·      Angels, archangels, demons ·      Worship of fire ·      The concept of free will ·      Savior born of a virgin ·      Resurrection	·      The sacred cow with the life giving milk ·      Stone amulets ·      Crystal / gemstone amulets ·      Pantheon of gods ·      Sacred dance ·      Flood myth ·      Idolatry ·      Hinduism	·        Chicken feather charms / behavior in battle ·        Astrology ·        Crystal amulets ·        Stone amulets ·        Sacred dance ·        Numerology ·        Lucky / unlucky numbers ·        Belief in an underworld ·        Humankind created from metal – Iron ·        Flood myth ·        Idolatry ·        Prophecy
Deities	·      Bel, Yarhibol, and Aglibol (trinity) ·      Shamash ·      Allat ·      Ba’alshamin ·      En-lil ·      Ea / Oannes ·      Enki ·      Nabu ·      Marduk, the sun god ·      Ishtar ·      YHWH	·      Ahura Mazda ·      Mithras	·      Vishnu ·      Brahma ·      Ganesha ·      Shiva ·      Saraswati	·        Zeus ·        Apollo ·        Venus ·        Aphrodite ·        Gaia ·        Athena

Table 2 Additional mythological influences on Southern Arabia (Hall, Littleton, and Wikipedia)

	Egyptian	Ethiopian
General	·       Reincarnation ·       Creation god ·       Pantheon of gods and goddesses ·       Sun god ·       Sacred animals ·       The creator god’s thoughts bring things into being ·       Man made from clay ·       Vital essence(soul?) ·       Trinity ·       Good and evil ·       Snake as embodiment of evil ·       Belief in an underworld ·       Amulets ·       Kings were gods ·       Magic ·       Book of the Dead	·      Animism ·      Evil eye ·      Zarr ·      Musical rituals ·      Abdar ·      Good and evil ·      Jusaism ·      Christianity
Dieties	·      Re ·      Isis ·      Osiris ·      Thoth ·      Amun ·      Ma’at ·      Anubis ·      Atum

Works Cited

Hall, Manly P. The Secret Teachings of All Ages. London: Duckworth, 2006. Print.

Hoyland, Robert G. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. London: Routledge, 2001. Print.

Littleton, C S. Mythology: The Illustrated Anthology of World Myth & Storytelling. San Diego, Calif: Thunder Bay Press, 2002. Print.

Spence, Lewis. Myths & Legends of Babylonia & Assyria. Detroit: Gale Research Co, 1975. Print.

Telesco, Patricia. The Magick of Folk Wisdom: A Source Book from the Ages. Edison, NJ: Castle Books, 2000. Print.

Wikipedia contributors. "Buda (folk religion)." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 26 May. 2011. Web. 18 Oct. 2011.

Wikipedia contributors. "Zār." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 10 Aug. 2011. Web. 18 Oct. 2011.

Written on August 30, 2011 for my Independent Study in Religion with a focus on Mythology

In the Best Interest of Humanity

Written on 2/1/12 in response to a couple of readings (sorry, I can't give adequate bibliography) for my Modern Muslim Thought class.

            I found the fatwa, issued by the 1403/1983 Meccan Islamic Law Academy of the World Muslim League, to be hypocritical in it’s function. It was saying that one could receive interest from a bank or financial dealing, but could not  benefit from it, instead donating it to some good cause, like a school. In order to make sure that the person couldn’t benefit from the donation (a good deed), they termed such a donation as not  being sadaqah, but instead a cleansing of the sin of taking the interest. I found it interesting that the Academy felt confident to declare that this donation was null and void in the eyes of God. I didn’t realize that they had such insight. To me, it’s semantics.

            The argument against this fatwa made sense to me, as it is true that in this world it is nearly impossible to not have and benefits that come from bank interest of some kind. They also attacked the hypocrisy of the fatwa. The argument didn’t make it clear, however, which interest is allowed and which  forbidden. The response left me feeling as though they were suggesting the permission of all interest dealings because it’s just to hard to “separate” in our modern world.

            The insurance fatwas were interesting, and I could follow the logic that such insurance policies are liken to gambling, which is forbidden in the Qur'an, but they didn’t address situations where law requires insurance – like with cars in Michigan where drivers are required by law to have auto insurance.

            Life insurance is less of a gamble (as indicated for a reason why it is forbidden) than is auto or property insurance. It is true that one may never reap a benefit from paying for property insurance, but we all die eventually. Where is the gamble?

Ancient Arabian Civilization

In The Clash of Civilizations, Huntington defines Civilization as “a cultural identity”, specifically, “the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity have short of that distinguishes humans from other species. “ (Huntington 23-24) The author of Arabia and the Arabs: From the bronze age to the coming of Islam, Robert G. Hoyland, essentially agrees – “There is some awareness that [the Arab people] may not all have possessed the same racial origins, but none doubted that they had come to form a single ethnic (socio-cultural) community.” (Hoyland 229). Before we can discuss how a people as diverse as those who lived in ancient Arabia can end up having a single cultural identity, we must first look at who these people were.

In Hoyland’s book, Ancient Arabia is demarked as the land including the Arabian Peninsula, stretching northward through the Syrian Desert. This area is approximately equivalent to one-quarter of the continental US. This large piece of land contained diverse people with distinctive histories and traditions due to their original isolation from each other (because of the vast deserts) and due to their closeness to different nations and cultures near to each corner of Arabia (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran, etc.) (Hoyland 5). Because of the lands great deserts and lack of resources, such as the bare necessities: food and water, many Arab tribes were nomadic in nature. In fact, even the term “Arab” is used in biblical texts, describing these nomadic people, and was likely used by these nomads themselves as a way to describe themselves separate from others. Those that were sedentary generally existed near the boundaries to other nations or along habitable shorelines.


Because of the natural resource issue and weather tendencies, Arab civilizations first appeared where resources were more abundant and living conditions more stable and comfortable – in the South and East ends of Arabia. The people living on the east side of Arabia had much contact with and thus influence from Mesopotamia and trade and thus show up in historical writings first (Hoyland 10). Later, due to trade and military conquests by outside parties (Byzantine Empire, Sasanian Empire, Rome, and Iran to name a few), Arabia opened up and forced Arabian people to take part in world power games. What brought these people of diverse backgrounds together was namely language, but also their military prowess and religious ideas, the last of which became more important post-Islam (Hoyland 230-246).

Although the Arab people had influences exerted over them from neighbors via trade and greedy empires, language was their glue of unity and it primarily identified them from the others. The southern Arabs were noted as the “Arabic-speaking Arabs” by historians and it is likely a mass migration of these southern Arabs that brings the language to the rest of the land (Hoyland 233-236). Arabic is written in a script that has its origins in the Nabataean alphabet, which now, post transformations, constitutes the Arabic script. Although documents describing the history of Arabia are rare, the oral tradition of Arab poetic mastery is where much information about the history of these people is derived. One of the features of Arabic that united the people of this vast land was the ability for the diction of the poetry to be understood by anyone speaking Arabic, regardless of dialect. Their poetry was a way to write the past, especially for the nomadic tribes, who likely used oral traditions versus written as a way to pass along information (Hoyland 242). Many of the poems celebrated their military prowess, which was another part of the cultural glue.

Although many nomadic Arabs aided the entering empires with their battle skill, they still seemed to hold their own identity as Arabs. But, because of their military partnerships with these outside forces, they were also influenced by their culture, idea of imperialism, and even religion. Still, an Arab was an Arab. Even the settled Arabs, whether settled due to an abundance of resources, or because of the economic relations with neighboring empires (or conquering empires), they still held their language and historic identity enough to remain Arab first.


Even with the advent of Islam, perhaps because of the advent of Islam, the Arab identity is even stronger. Language again played a very important role of even Islamic “Arab-ness”. There was a lot of upheaval and confusion in the early days of Islam, after Mohammed’s death. It was to the Islamic nomadic Arabs that the scholars turned to in order to sort out the confusion of what laws should be composed and how Islam should be taught. Abu ‘Amr ibn al-‘Ala’ ultimately tied the Arabic language to the study and practice of Islam by promoting “Quranic and grammatical studies” by routinely dispatching “his students to nomad informants to resolve [points] of grammar, to ask about ‘the speech of the nomadic Arabs’… especially elderly sheikhs who had been alive before Islam” (Hoyland 245).

Ancient Arab identity was firmly rooted in language. Even as tribes migrated, settled, and dispersed, language was something they held in common, in opposition to the “others”. Language separated them from the Romans and Iranians, even as imperialism infiltrated their culture. Language tied religion to the identity of ancient Arabs in the early Islamic days. Even now, language plays a huge role in the identity of Muslims, as Arabic is the language of the holy book and prophet. Many non-Arab converts to Islam often adopt an Arabic name in honor of that tie. They will often have a desire to learn Arabic to read the Qur’an and even visit the homeland of the prophet Mohammed. (Hoyland 8)

By this standpoint, Arab civilization fits with Huntington’s definition, as Language is what separates the Arab from the non-Arab, more than anything else, although their cultural and religious traditions often also play a large part. It is even possible to agree with his idea of a “clash of civilizations” with the knowledge that Arabic is becoming less important in a world almost ruled by the English language. Most Arab students learn English early in life, whereas English and other speaking students don’t usually learn Arabic unless it is in relation to Islamic education. Will a war erupt over language? I doubt it. It is more likely that Arabic could be lost to assimilation. Would that change the identity of “Arab”? Likely. What would take its place? Perhaps religion.

Bibliography

Hoyland, Robert G. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. London: Routledge, 2001. Print.

Huntington, Samuel. The clash of civilizations. Foreign Affairs, 72(3):22-49. 1993.

Written on October 10, 2011 for my Global Studies class, Encountering Differences