My version |
Most people have likely experienced a time in their
life where they were singing, reciting rhymes with a friend or telling stories
to each other and found that they had a disagreement about the exact words or telling
of the song, rhyme, or story. For my husband and me, our argument was always
over the “Woodchuck” tongue twister. He swore his version was correct and I
swore mine was. These variations arise due to the oral nature of these songs,
rhymes, and stories that are passed to us in our childhood. Often times these
variations occur regionally and/or culturally. Mythology follows this same
pattern. It is therefore important when researching the origins of myths to
understand the people of the lands where the myths arise.
Although there is a vast collection of information
available about the advent of Islam and the beliefs of Muslims throughout the
Middle East and across the world, information about what the people of Arabia
believed before the coming of Islam is scant. Most of the information available
about the mythology of the area pertains to Ancient Sumeria, Mesopotamia,
Assyria, Canaan, and Egypt. In order to better understand the beliefs of the
Pre-Islamic Arabs, it is necessary to identify who the ancient Arabs were and
the regions in Arabia in which they lived.
Ancient Arabia is demarked as the Arabian
Peninsula and includes the land stretching northward through the Syrian Desert
(Hoyland, 5). In comparison to the continental
US, this area is approximately equivalent to one-quarter the size – a vast
piece of land. Thousands of years ago, many diverse people occupied this large
piece of land. Much of the land contains vast deserts and because of this, these
ancient Arab people were isolated from each other. Their distance and isolation
from each other combined with their closeness to other different nations and
cultures near each corner of Arabia (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran, etc.) caused
them to develop distinctive histories and traditions (Hoyland 5). Many Arab tribes were nomadic in nature because
of the lands’ great deserts and lack of resources, such as the bare
necessities: food and water. The term “Arab”
is used in biblical texts to describe these nomadic people, and was likely used
by these nomads themselves as a way to describe their identity, separating them
from the “others”. Those that were sedentary generally existed in East and
South Arabia near the boundaries to other nations or along habitable shorelines,
where they had access to the resources needed to live.
Although there were some differences between
settled and nomadic Arabs, they still had fairly similar beliefs and practices.
Their beliefs were pagan in nature, having many gods and goddesses that they
believed in. Often cities or villages had patron deities and the settlers were
the children of the patron deity. They had rituals and sacrifices that were
made to their gods. They believed in omens and magic. They were idolaters. Even
the nomadic Arabs would either carry stones with them or find stones hey
believed in evil spirits, jinn or ginnaye, and ghouls. They believed in amulets
for protection and magical medicines, like drinking a potion of your loved
one’s ashes mixed with water to cure grief (Hoyland, 151). A particular belief
that is widespread is that of the curse of the evil eye and it was this that
they were often wearing amulets or had incantations to protect themselves with
(Hoyland, 152). These ancient Arabs also believed in divination and would read
signs in nature to make choices about the way to proceed. Especially important
was the behavior of birds. Although most of these and other beliefs were
widespread, they also had regional differences that may have arisen from their proximity to and interactions with other nations.
Ancient Arabia is divided up into three main
regions in Robert Hoyland’s Arabia and the Arabs: East, South, and North
/ Central (See Figure 1). North / Central Arabia also encompass what some might
refer to as Western Arabia. I will attempt to show what influences existed that
the people of each portion of Arabia would have most likely encountered and
provide a list of examples of some of the beliefs in these regions.
East Arabia
Hoyland describes Ancient East Arabia as being
made up of Southern Mesopotamia, Dilmun, and Magan (current day Southern Iraq,
Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and Oman). Major influences to the Eastern Arab
population were from trade routes passing from northern Mesopotamia through to
the Gulf and proximity to and trade with Elam in southwest Iran, and Meluha
(Hoyland, 13). Throughout the ages, Influences grew as trade grew, bringing in
contact with people (and sometimes rule) from Egypt, Assyria, Anatolia, Persia
(specifically, Iran, in the middle of the first century AD), Greece, Macedonia,
Parthia, and Rome (Hoyland 14-30).
Mythological influences on the East Arabia Arabs
thus would have ranged, over time, from that of ancient Sumerian traditions
from Mesopotamia, Zoroastrianism from Persia, Hindu influences through Elam, to
the pantheon of Greek and Roman gods and goddesses. Table 1 shows some examples
of these influencing beliefs would have been common in East Arabia (Littleton,
Spence, Telesco).
South Arabia
Southern Arabia was made up of what is now Yemen.
Major influences to the Southern Arab population were from interactions and
trade with Egypt and Ethiopia other areas of Arabia (Howland 40-41). Like with Eastern Arabia, influences grew as
trade grew, also bringing in contact with people (and sometimes rule) from India,
Parthia, and Rome (Hoyland).
The mythological influences that would have had
an effect on the Arabs of Southern Arabia would have been much the same as that
of Eastern Arabia, with a lesser influence from Assyria, Mesopotamia, and
Babylon. As mentioned previously, Southern Arabs would have come into contact
with Egyptians and Ethiopians, mostly due to their proximity to these other
nations. Because of this, Southern
Arabia would have some additional mythological influences not listed in Table
1. See Table 2 for these additional beliefs that may have influenced Southern
Arabs.
North and Central Arabia
North and Central Arabia differ from the other
regions because they consist mostly of arid land that lacks an abundance of the
resources to be able to sustain settlement easily, especially in ancient times.
Because of the difficulty of settling, the people who lived in these regions
were nomadic, often referred to as Bedouins. It is the Arab Bedouins of North
and Central Arabia that show up in Israelite and Assyrian writings such as the
Judeo-Christian Bible. The Bedouin Arabs were pastoralists and traders that
came into contact with the same outsiders as the other regions over time
(Howland).
Mythologically speaking, Bedouins, as well as
having their own particular beliefs, would have been influenced by all of the
same outside nations as already mentioned. A difference from the other regions
would be that they would have likely had more contact with Egyptian beliefs and
especially Judaism and Christianity as those faiths grew.
When communities have a lot of contact with
people who have other traditions and other beliefs than their own, it is
impossible for the new beliefs, stories, and traditions that they are exposed
to not have some staying power. Often, especially in the case of military
conquest and rule of a new entity, new religions are adopted along with new
stories and traditions. Sometimes these stories are entirely new, but most
often there is a mixing of the myths and traditions, producing something that
appeases both parties, just as Rome assimilated the pagans by turning their
winter solstice festival into a Christian holiday, Christmas. Thus, everything
from Zoroastrianism to Christianity was introduced to the Arabs of Arabia.
Even before there were outside influences, the
Arab population had a pantheon of Gods. Most villages had their own patron deity,
of which the people of the village were called the children that patron god.
Hoyland mentions an old Arab proverb which says, “’When you enter a village,
swear by its god’” (Hoyland, 139-140). Often times, however, the communities
still held a god or goddess that was the leader of all the other gods.
Tables
and Figures
Figure 1 Map of
Ancient East, South, and North/Central Arabia (Hoyland)
|
Table 1 Examples of mythological influences on Eastern Arabia
(Hall, Littleon, Spence, and Telesco)
Sumerian / Mesopotamian / Babylonian /
Assyrian
|
Persian
|
Indic from Elam
|
Greek / Roman
|
|
General
|
·
Clay figure amulets
·
The worship of a Sun god
and the bull
·
The sacred cow with the
life giving milk
·
Astrology
·
Metal amulets
·
Stone amulets
·
Crystal / gemstone
amulets
·
Sacred dance
·
Trial by water
·
Knot charms / curative knots
·
Lucky / unlucky days
·
Lucky / unlucky numbers
·
Ritual sex
·
Curative drum beats
·
Incense for purification
·
Polytheism
·
Idolatry
·
Belief in an underworld
·
Humankind created from
clay
·
Flood myth
·
Giants
·
Judaism
·
Christianity
|
·
Shell amulets to avert
the evil eye
·
Magic
·
Monotheism
·
Zoroastrianism
·
Astrology
·
The Zodiac
·
Concept of good vs. evil
·
Angels, archangels,
demons
·
Worship of fire
·
The concept of free will
·
Savior born of a virgin
·
Resurrection
|
·
The sacred cow with the
life giving milk
·
Stone amulets
·
Crystal / gemstone
amulets
·
Pantheon of gods
·
Sacred dance
·
Flood myth
·
Idolatry
·
Hinduism
|
·
Chicken feather charms /
behavior in battle
·
Astrology
·
Crystal amulets
·
Stone amulets
·
Sacred dance
·
Numerology
·
Lucky / unlucky numbers
·
Belief in an underworld
·
Humankind created from
metal – Iron
·
Flood myth
·
Idolatry
·
Prophecy
|
Deities
|
·
Bel, Yarhibol, and
Aglibol (trinity)
·
Shamash
·
Allat
·
Ba’alshamin
·
En-lil
·
Ea / Oannes
·
Enki
·
Nabu
·
Marduk, the sun god
·
Ishtar
·
YHWH
|
·
Ahura Mazda
·
Mithras
|
·
Vishnu
·
Brahma
·
Ganesha
·
Shiva
·
Saraswati
|
·
Zeus
·
Apollo
·
Venus
·
Aphrodite
·
Gaia
·
Athena
|
Table 2
Additional mythological influences on Southern Arabia (Hall, Littleton, and
Wikipedia)
Egyptian
|
Ethiopian
|
|
General
|
·
Reincarnation
·
Creation god
·
Pantheon of gods and
goddesses
·
Sun god
·
Sacred animals
·
The creator god’s
thoughts bring things into being
·
Man made from clay
·
Vital essence(soul?)
·
Trinity
·
Good and evil
·
Snake as embodiment of
evil
·
Belief in an underworld
·
Amulets
·
Kings were gods
·
Magic
·
Book of the Dead
|
·
Animism
·
Evil eye
·
Zarr
·
Musical rituals
·
Abdar
·
Good and evil
·
Jusaism
·
Christianity
|
Dieties
|
·
Re
·
Isis
·
Osiris
·
Thoth
·
Amun
·
Ma’at
·
Anubis
·
Atum
|
Works Cited
Hall, Manly P. The Secret Teachings of
All Ages. London: Duckworth, 2006. Print.
Hoyland, Robert G. Arabia and the Arabs:
From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. London: Routledge, 2001. Print.
Littleton, C S. Mythology: The
Illustrated Anthology of World Myth & Storytelling. San Diego, Calif:
Thunder Bay Press, 2002. Print.
Spence, Lewis. Myths & Legends of
Babylonia & Assyria. Detroit: Gale Research Co, 1975. Print.
Telesco, Patricia. The Magick of Folk
Wisdom: A Source Book from the Ages. Edison, NJ: Castle Books, 2000. Print.
Wikipedia contributors. "Buda (folk
religion)." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia, 26 May. 2011. Web. 18 Oct. 2011.
Wikipedia contributors. "Zār."
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 10 Aug.
2011. Web. 18 Oct. 2011.
Written on August 30, 2011 for my Independent Study in Religion with a focus on Mythology
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